Cancer information Cancer treatment

Leukemia. Prognosis

Approximately 70–80% of adults with acute myelogenous leukemia under age 60 achieve complete remission. High-dose postremission chemotherapy leads to cure in 30–40% of these patients, and high-dose cytarabine has been shown to be superior to therapy with lower doses. Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (for younger adults with HLA-matched siblings) is curative in approximately 60% of cases. Autologous bone marrow transplantation is a promising new form of therapy that may cure 50–70% of patients in first remission. One recent study demonstrated the superiority of this approach to nonablative chemotherapy. Older adults with acute myelogenous leukemia reportedly achieve complete remission approximately 50% of the time. In selected cases, older patients may be treated with intensive chemotherapy with curative intent.
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Ninety percent of adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia achieve complete remission. Subsequent postremission chemotherapy is curative in 30–50% of adults. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children is much more responsive to therapy, with 95% achieving complete remission and 60–70% of these being cured with postremission treatment that is far less toxic than that necessary for adults.
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Once leukemia has recurred (”relapsed”) after initial chemotherapy, bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is the only curative option. Allogenic BMT can be used for those under age 55 with histocompatible sibling donors and is successful in 30–40% of cases. Autologous BMT may be curative in 30–50% of cases after a second remission is achieved.

– Bishop JF et al: A randomized study of high-dose cytarabine in induction in acute myeloid leukemia. Blood 2006;87:1710.

– Cortes JE, Kantarjian H, Freireich EJ: Acute lymphocytic leukemia: A comprehensive review with emphasis on biology and therapy. Cancer Treat Res 2006;84:291.

– Degos L et al: All-trans-retinoic acid as a differentiating agent in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia. Blood 1995;85:2643.

– Keating S et al: Prognostic factors of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) allografted in first complete remission: An analysis of the EORTC-GIMEMA AML 8A trial. The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) and the Gruppo Italiano Malattie Ematologiche Maligne dell’ Adulto (GIMEMA) Leukemia Cooperative Groups. Bone Marrow Transplant 2006;17:993.
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– Linker CA et al: Autologous bone marrow transplantation for acute myeloid leukemia using busulfan plus etoposide as a preparative regimen. Blood 1993;81:311. (Using an intensified preparative regimen and in vitro bone marrow purging, 5-year disease-free survival is greater than 70% in first remission patients and greater than 50% in second remission patients. Updated results in 50 patients confirm these findings, with 70% long-term disease-free survival and a 4% mortality rate for first remission patients.)

–Mayer RJ et al: Intensive postremission chemotherapy in adults with acute myeloid leukemia. N Engl J Med 1994;331:896. (A cooperative group study confirming previous reports that in adults under age 60, postremission therapy with high-dose cytarabine is superior to treatment with standard-dose cytarabine. Standard doses are no longer recommended.)

–Stein AS et al: In vivo purging with high-dose cytarabine followed by high-dose chemoradiotherapy and reinfusion of unpurged bone marrow for adult acute myelogenous leukemia in first complete remission. J Clin Oncol 2006;14:2206.

–Zittoun RA et al: Autologous or allogeneic bone marrow transplantation compared with intensive chemotherapy in acute myelogenous leukemia. N Engl J Med 1995;32:217. (Autologous bone marrow transplantation produces a superior disease-free survival in first remission patients: 48% at 4 years.)

Leukemia treatment

Differential Diagnosis
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Acute myelogenous leukemia must be distinguished from other myeloproliferative disorders, chronic myelogenous leukemia, and myelodysplastic syndromes. It is important to distinguish acute leukemia from a left-shifted bone marrow that is recovering from a previous toxic insult. If the question is in doubt, a bone marrow study should be repeated in several days to see if maturation has taken place. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia must be distinguished from other lymphoproliferative disease such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia, lymphomas, and hairy cell leukemia. It may also be confused with the atypical lymphocytosis of mononucleosis. An experienced observer can distinguish these entities based on morphology.
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Treatment
Most young patients with acute leukemia are treated with the objective of effecting a cure. The first step in treatment is to obtain complete remission, defined as normal peripheral blood with resolution of cytopenias, normal bone marrow with no excess in blasts, and normal clinical status. However, complete remission is not synonymous with cure, and leukemia will invariably recur if no further treatment is given.
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Acute myelogenous leukemia is treated initially with intensive combination chemotherapy, including daunorubicin and cytarabine. Effective treatment produces aplasia of the bone marrow, which takes 2–3 weeks to recover. During this period, intensive supportive care, including transfusion and antibiotic therapy, is required. Once complete remission has been achieved, several different types of postremission therapy are potentially curative. Options include repeated intensive chemotherapy, high-dose chemoradiotherapy with allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, and high-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow transplantation. Recently, progress has been made in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia (M3). The addition of all-trans retinoic acid to initial chemotherapy has improved the results of both initial treatment and long-term survival. Retinoic acid appears to induce terminal differentiation in the malignant cell and hence to induce remission without cytotoxic effect.
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Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is treated initially with combination chemotherapy, including daunorubicin, vincristine, prednisone, and asparaginase. Remission induction therapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia is less myelosuppressive than treatment for acute myelogenous leukemia and does not necessarily produce marrow aplasia. After achieving complete remission, patients receive central nervous system prophylaxis so that meningeal sequestration of leukemic cells does not develop. As with acute myelogenous leukemia, patients may be treated with either chemotherapy or high-dose chemotherapy plus bone marrow transplantation.

Laboratory findings. Leukemia

Laboratory Findings: The hallmark of acute leukemia is the combination of pancytopenia with circulating blasts. However, blasts may be absent from the peripheral smear in as many as 10% of cases (”aleukemic leukemia”). The bone marrow is usually hypercellular and dominated by blasts. More than 30% blasts are required to make a diagnosis of acute leukemia.

A number of other laboratory abnormalities may be present. Hyperuricemia may be seen. If disseminated intravascular coagulation is present, the fibrinogen level will be reduced, the prothrombin time prolonged, and fibrin degradation products or fibrin D-dimers present. Patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (especially T cell) may have a mediastinal mass visible on chest radiograph. Patients with meningeal leukemia will have blasts present in the spinal fluid. This is seen in approximately 5% of cases at diagnosis and is more common in monocytic types of acute myelogenous leukemia.
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Acute leukemia should be classified as either acute lymphoblastic or acute myelogenous leukemia, also called acute nonlymphocytic leukemia. Patients with acute myelogenous leukemia may have granules visible in the blast cells. The Auer rod, an eosinophilic needle-like inclusion in the cytoplasm, is pathognomonic of acute myelogenous leukemia. To confirm the myeloid nature of the cells, histochemical stains demonstrating myeloid enzymes such as peroxidase or chloroacetate esterase may be useful. Monocytic lineage can be demonstrated by the finding of butyrate esterase. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia should be considered when there is no morphologic or histochemical evidence of myeloid or monocytic lineage. The diagnosis is confirmed by demonstrating surface markers characteristic of primitive lymphoid cells. Terminal deoxynucleotidal transferase (TdT) is present in 95% of cases of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. A variety of monoclonal antibodies have been used to define other phenotypes of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Primitive B lymphocyte antigens include CD10 and CD19. T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia is diagnosed by the finding of CD2, CD5, and CD7.
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Acute myelogenous leukemia is usually categorized on the basis of morphology and histochemistry as follows: Acute undifferentiated leukemia (M0), acute myeloblastic leukemia (M1), acute myeloblastic leukemia with differentiation (M2), acute promyelocytic leukemia (M3), acute myelomonocytic leukemia (M4), acute monoblastic leukemia (M5), erythroleukemia (M6), and megakaryoblastic leukemia (M7).

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is most usefully classified by immunologic phenotype as follows: common, early B lineage, and T cell.
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Cytogenetic studies have emerged as the most powerful prognostic factor in the acute leukemias. Favorable cytogenetics in acute myeloid leukemia include t(8;21), t(15;17), and inv(16)(p13;q22), These patients have a higher chance of achieving both short- and long-term disease control. Favorable cytogenetics in acute lymphoblastic leukemia are the hyperdiploid states. Unfavorable cytogenetics are monosomy 5 and 7, Philadelphia chromosome, and abnormalities of 11q23.

Clinical Findings. Leukemia

A. Symptoms and Signs: Most patients with acute leukemia present with an acute illness and have been ill only for days or weeks. Bleeding (usually due to thrombocytopenia) is usually in the skin and mucosal surfaces, manifested as gingival bleeding, epistaxis, or menorrhagia. Less commonly, widespread severe bleeding is seen in patients with disseminated intravascular coagulation (seen in acute promyelocytic leukemia and monocytic leukemia). Infection is due to neutropenia, with the risk of infection becoming high as the neutrophil count falls below 500/mL. Patients with neutrophil counts less than 100/mL almost invariably become infected within several days. The most common pathogens are gram-negative bacteria (E coli, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas) or fungi (Candida, Aspergillus). Common presentations include cellulitis, pneumonia, and perirectal infections. Septicemia in severely neutropenic patients can cause death within a few hours if treatment with appropriate antibiotics is delayed.
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Patients may also seek medical attention because of gum hypertrophy and bone and joint pain. The most dramatic presentation is hyperleukocytosis, in which a markedly elevated circulating blast count (usually > 200,000/mL) leads to impaired circulation, presenting as headache, confusion, and dyspnea. Such patients require emergent leukapheresis and chemotherapy.
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On examination, patients are usually pale and have purpura, petechiae, and various signs of infection. Stomatitis and gum hypertrophy may be seen in patients with monocytic leukemia. There is variable enlargement of the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. Bone tenderness, particularly in the sternum and tibia, may be present.

Leukemia

Acute leukemia is a hematopoietic progenitor cell malignancy. These cells proliferate in an uncontrolled fashion and ultimately replace normal bone marrow elements. Most cases arise with no clear cause. However, radiation and some toxins (benzene) are clearly leukemogenic. In addition, a number of chemotherapeutic agents (especially procarbazine, melphalan, other alkylating agents, and etoposide) may cause leukemia. The leukemias seen after toxin or chemotherapy exposure often develop from a myelodysplastic prodrome and are associated with abnormalities in chromosomes 5 and 7. Although a number of other cytogenetic abnormalities are seen in certain types of acute leukemia, their exact role in pathogenesis remains unclear.
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Most of the clinical findings in acute leukemia are due to bone marrow failure, which results from replacement of normal bone marrow elements by the malignant cell. Less common manifestations include direct organ infiltration (skin, gastrointestinal tract, meninges). Acute leukemia is one of the outstanding examples of a once invariably fatal disease that is now treatable and potentially curable with combination chemotherapy.
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Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) comprises 80% of the acute leukemias of childhood. The peak incidence is between 3 and 7 years of age. However, ALL is also seen in adults and comprises approximately 20% of adult acute leukemias. Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML; acute nonlymphocytic leukemia [ANLL]) is chiefly an adult disease with a median age at presentation of 50 years and an increasing incidence with advanced age. However, it is also seen in young adults and children.

Testicular Cancer. Conclusion

Two studies looking at carboplatin. One done at Memorial Sloan-Kettering. Higher failure rate with carboplatin although no difference in overall survival as a result of salvage. A European study, 598 men. Good risk. Difference in complete response was seen and there is ultimately differences in treatment failure and in survival, although this was not statistically significant. Carboplatin is considered an inferior drug to platinum in the context of testicular cancer. So this is the standard. It’s BEP, platinum 20 mg per meter squared given for five successive days, VP-16 100 mg per meter squared given for five successive days, bleomycin 30 units given weekly, three cycles on time, no dose reductions and no dose delays.
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For poor risk patients there have been attempts at improving the cure rates. As I mentioned before, the cure rate for these patients is about 50%. However, there has been no improvement over the past 10 or 15 years of research. The standard remains four cycles of BEP. Randomized study comparing BEP to double dose cisplatin BP, no better, greater toxicity with double dose cisplatin. There have been attempts at using high dose chemotherapy here but that remains unproven. Two recently published randomized studies looking at the substitution of ifosfamide for bleomycin, VIP versus BEP. Both of which showed equivalents of VIP to BEP with a higher hematologic toxicity associated with VIP. So for the majority of patients with poor risk germ cell tumors off of a clinical trial the standard remains four cycles of platinum, VP-16 and bleomycin.

Now here is a patient, a fairly typical patient, who has multiple pulmonary metastases and high tumor markers, treated with chemotherapy. Tumor markers normalize. The masses clear up completely. Complete response, no further therapy is necessary, the patient is observed. Female viagra enhances libido in women with lack of desire. This is a patient who received chemotherapy, markers normalized and was left with this large, irregular retroperitoneal mass. This started out as a non-seminoma in the testes. So the standard of care in the United States for residual masses, after tumor marker normalization, is resection of the residual mass. In 2006 what one finds in these residual masses 10% of the time is residual cancer. If residual cancer is seen, further chemotherapy is necessary. The standard has been two further cycles of the same chemotherapy, although salvage chemotherapy is appropriate here as well. Forty-five percent of the time one sees scar tissue. If scar tissue is seen, the patient obviously has a great prognosis. So further therapy is necessary. Forty-five percent of the time a mature teratoma will be seen. If it is seen, no further chemotherapy is necessary but there needs to be close surveillance in these patients for the possibility of other teratomas arising in other locations. For patients who were treated with primary chemotherapy and ultimately relapse with marker elevation and/or progression of tumor masses, some of those patients can still be cured with subsequent chemotherapy. For a patient who has received standard chemotherapy, about 20% of patients will be cured with a substitution of ifosfamide and Velban, plus platinum; so-called VEIP. So 20% of these patients will be cured with substitute standard chemotherapy and when high dose chemotherapy is used in combination with this, in non-randomized studies, about 50% of patients will be cured. These are obviously more selected patients, responding patients, so whether or not high dose chemotherapy as first salvage is better than chemotherapy alone, remains to be determined. For patients who failed primary chemotherapy and salvage chemotherapy, one can still cure some of these patients with high dose chemotherapy and bone marrow transplant. About 25% of patients in these studies that have been published will be cured.
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Finally, last but not least, there are some patients who become chemotherapy-resistant who ultimately can be cured with third line surgery. These are chemotherapy refractory patients who generally have resectable disease, hopefully single site disease, generally late relapsers. There tends to be teratoma in the original pathology and there tends to be alpha-fetoprotein marker elevation only. Patients with HCG elevations, very poor. I’ll stop here.